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A vitamin is a nutrient that is an organic compound required in tiny amounts
for essential metabolic reactions in a living organism. The term vitamin does
not include other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty
acids, or essential amino acids, nor does it encompass the large number of other
nutrients that promote health but that are not essential for life.
Vitamins are bio-molecules that act as catalysts and substrates in chemical
reactions. When acting as a catalyst, vitamins are bound to enzymes and are
called cofactors. For example, vitamin K is part of the proteases involved in
blood clotting. Vitamins also act as coenzymes to carry chemical groups between
enzymes. For example, folic acid carries various forms of carbon group – methyl,
formyl and methylene - in the cell.
Until the 1900s, vitamins were obtained solely through food intake, and changes
in diet (which, for example, could occur during a particular growing season) can
alter the types and amounts of vitamins ingested. Vitamins have been produced as
commodity chemicals and made widely available as inexpensive pills for several
decades, allowing supplementation of the dietary intake.
History
The value of eating certain foods to maintain health was recognized long before
vitamins were identified. The ancient Egyptians knew that feeding a patient
liver would help cure night blindness, an illness now known to be caused by a
vitamin A deficiency. In 1747, the Scottish surgeon James Lind discovered that
citrus foods helped prevent scurvy, a particularly deadly disease in which
collagen is not properly formed, causing poor wound healing, bleeding of the
gums, severe pain, and death. In 1753, Lind published his Treatise on the
Scurvy, which recommended using lemons and limes to avoid scurvy, which was
adopted by the British Royal Navy. This led to the nickname Limey for sailors of
that organization. Lind's discovery, however, was not widely accepted by
individuals in the Royal Navy's Arctic expeditions in the 19th century, where it
was widely believed that scurvy could be prevented by practicing good hygiene,
regular exercise, and by maintaining the morale of the crew while on board,
rather than by a diet of fresh food. As a result, Arctic expeditions continued
to be plagued by scurvy and other deficiency diseases. In the early 20th
century, when Robert Falcon Scott made his two expeditions to the Antarctic, the
prevailing medical theory was that scurvy was caused by "tainted" canned food.
In 1881, Russian surgeon Nikolai Lunin studied the effects of scurvy while at
the University of Tartu in present-day Estonia. He fed mice an artificial
mixture of all the separate constituents of milk known at that time, namely the
proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and salts. The mice that received only the
individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed
normally. He made a conclusion that "a natural food such as milk must therefore
contain, besides these known principal ingredients, small quantities of unknown
substances essential to life". However, his conclusions were rejected by other
researchers when they were unable to reproduce his results. One difference was
that he had used table sugar (sucrose), while other researchers had used milk
sugar (lactose) that still contained small amounts of vitamin B.
In 1897, Christiaan Eijkman discovered that eating unpolished rice instead of
the polished variety helped to prevent the disease beriberi. The following year,
Frederick Hopkins postulated that some foods contained "accessory factors"—in
addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats, et cetera—that were necessary for the
functions of the human body. Hopkins was awarded the 1929 Nobel Prize for
Physiology or Medicine with Christiaan Eijkman for their discovery of several
vitamins.
The Polish biochemist Kazimierz Funk was the first to isolate the water-soluble
complex of micronutrients–the bioactivity of which Fletcher had identified–and
proposed the complex be named "Vitamine" (a portmanteaux of "vital amine") in
1912. The name soon became synonymous with Hopkins's "accessory factors", and by
the time it was shown that not all vitamins were amines, the word was already
ubiquitous. We should note that, in 1910 before Funk's discovery, the Japanese
scientist Umetaro Suzuki succeeded in extracting the same complex from rice bran
and named "Orizanin". However, since he published this discovery in Japanese,
this denomination did not prevail. In 1920, Jack Cecil Drummond proposed that
the final "e" be dropped to deemphasize the "amine" reference after the
discovery that vitamin C had no amine component.
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)Throughout the early 1900s, the use of deprivation
studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a number of vitamins.
Initially, lipid from fish oil was used to cure rickets in rats, and the
fat-soluble nutrient was called "antirachitic A". The irony here is that the
first "vitamin" bioactivity ever isolated, which cured rickets, was initially
called "vitamin A", the bioactivity of which is now called vitamin D. What we
now call "vitamin A" was identified in fish oil because it was inactivated by
ultraviolet light.
In 1931, Albert Szent-Gy?rgyi and a fellow researcher Joseph Svirbely determined
that "hexuronic acid" was actually vitamin C and noted its anti-scorbutic
activity. In 1937, Szent-Gy?rgyi was awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery.
In 1943 Edward Adelbert Doisy and Henrik Dam were awarded the Nobel Prize for
their discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure.
In humans
Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble, meaning that they dissolve
easily in water or fat-soluble vitamins, which are absorbed through the
intestinal tract with the help of lipids (fats). In general, water-soluble
vitamins are readily excreted from the body. Each vitamin is typically used in
multiple reactions and, therefore, most have multiple functions.
In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E and K) and 9
water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C).
Vitamin name Chemical name Solubility Recommended dietary allowances
(male, age 19–70) Deficiency disease Upper Intake Level
(UL/day) Overdose disease
Vitamin A Retinoids
(retinol, retinoids
and carotenoids) Fat 900 μg Night-blindness and
Keratomalacia 3,000 μg Hypervitaminosis A
Vitamin B1 Thiamine Water 1.2 mg Beriberi N/D ?
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin Water 1.3 mg Ariboflavinosis N/D ?
Vitamin B3 Niacin Water 16.0 mg Pellagra 35.0 mg
Vitamin B5 Pantothenic acid Water 5.0 mg Paresthesia N/D ?
Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine Water 1.3-1.7 mg Anaemia 100 mg Impairment of
proprioception, nerve damage
Vitamin B7 Biotin Water 30.0 μg Dermatitis N/D ?
Vitamin B9 Folic acid Water 400 μg Deficiency during pregnancy is associated
with birth defects, such as neural tube defects 1,000 μg ?
Vitamin B12 Cyanocobalamin Water 2.4 μg Megaloblastic anaemia N/D ?
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid Water 90.0 mg Scurvy 2,000 mg Refer to Vitamin C
megadosage
Vitamin D Ergocalciferol and
Cholecalciferol Fat 5.0 μg-10 μg Rickets and Osteomalacia 50 μg Hypervitaminosis
D
Vitamin E Tocopherol and
Tocotrienol Fat 15.0 mg Deficiency is very rare; mild hemolytic anemia in
newborn infants. 1,000 mg ?
Vitamin K Naphthoquinone Fat 120 μg Bleeding diathesis N/D ?
In nutrition and diseases
Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of a multicellular
organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus begins
to develop, at the moment of conception, from the nutrients it absorbs. It
requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These
nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things,
skin, bone, and muscle. If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these
nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may
cause permanent damage.
For the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by
other means. For example, microorganisms in the intestine—commonly known as "gut
flora"—produce vitamin K and biotin, while one form of vitamin D is synthesized
in the skin with the help of natural ultraviolet in sunlight. Humans can produce
some vitamins from precursors they consume. Examples include vitamin A, produced
from beta carotene, and niacin, from the amino acid tryptophan.
Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients
for the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up a
multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to
efficiently use chemical energy provided by food it eats, and to help process
the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats required for respiration.
Deficiencies
Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A
primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamin in
its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that
prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a “lifestyle
factor”, such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or the use of
medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin. People who
eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency.
In contrast, restrictive diets have the potential to cause prolonged vitamin
deficits, which may result in often painful and potentially deadly diseases.
Because human bodies do not store most vitamins, humans must consume them
regularly to avoid deficiency. Human bodily stores for different vitamins vary
widely; vitamins A, D, and B12 are stored in significant amounts in the human
body, mainly in the liver, and an adult human's diet may be deficient in
vitamins A and B12 for many months before developing a deficiency condition.
Vitamin B3 is not stored in the human body in significant amounts, so stores may
only last a couple of weeks.
Well-known human vitamin deficiencies involve thiamine (beriberi), niacin
(pellagra), vitamin C (scurvy) and vitamin D (rickets). In much of the developed
world, such deficiencies are rare; this is due to (1) an adequate supply of
food; and (2) the addition of vitamins and minerals to common foods, often
called fortification.
Side effects and overdose
In large doses, some vitamins have documented side effects that tend to be more
severe with a larger dosage. The likelihood of consuming too much of any vitamin
from food is remote, but overdosing from vitamin supplementation does occur. At
high enough dosages some vitamins cause side effects such as nausea, diarrhea,
and vomiting. When side effects emerge, recovery is often accomplished by
reducing the dosage. The concentrations of vitamins an individual can tolerate
vary widely, and appear to be related to age and state of health. In the United
States, overdose exposure to all formulations of vitamins was reported by 62,562
individuals in 2004 (nearly 80% of these exposures were in children under the
age of 6), leading to 53 "major" life-threatening outcomes and 3 deaths —a small
number in comparison to the 19,250 people who died of unintentional poisoning of
all kinds in the U.S. in the same year (2004).
Supplements
Dietary supplements, often containing vitamins, are used to ensure that adequate
amounts of nutrients are obtained on a daily basis, if optimal amounts of the
nutrients cannot be obtained through a varied diet. Scientific evidence
supporting the benefits of some dietary supplements is well established for
certain health conditions, but others need further study.
In the United States, advertising for dietary supplements is required to include
a disclaimer that the product is not intended to treat, diagnose, mitigate,
prevent, or cure disease, and that any health claims have not been evaluated by
the Food and Drug Administration. In some cases, dietary supplements may have
unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary
supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health
conditions. Vitamin supplements may also contain levels of vitamins many times
higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.
Intake of excessive quantities can cause vitamin poisoning, most commonly for
Vitamin A and Vitamin D. For this reason, most common vitamins have recommended
upper daily intake amounts.
Governmental regulation of vitamin supplements
Most countries place dietary supplements in a special category under the general
umbrella of foods, not drugs. This necessitates that the manufacturer, and not
the government, be responsible for ensuring that its dietary supplement products
are safe before they are marketed. Unlike drug products, that must implicitly be
proven safe and effective for their intended use before marketing, there are
often no provisions to "approve" dietary supplements for safety or effectiveness
before they reach the consumer. Also unlike drug products, manufacturers and
distributors of dietary supplements are not generally required to report any
claims of injuries or illnesses that may be related to the use of their
products.
Names in current and previous nomenclatures
The reason the set of vitamins seems to skip directly from E to K is that the
vitamins corresponding to "letters" F-J were either reclassified over time,
discarded as false leads, or renamed because of their relationship to "vitamin
B", which became a "complex" of vitamins. The German-speaking scientists who
isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so
because the vitamin is intimately involved in the Koagulation of blood following
wounding. At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through I were
already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable.
The following table lists chemicals that had previously been classified as
vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the
B-complex:
Previous name Chemical name Reason for name change
Vitamin B4 Adenine DNA metabolite
Vitamin B8 Adenylic acid DNA metabolite
Vitamin F Essential fatty acids Needed in large quantities (does
not fit the definition of a vitamin).
Vitamin G Riboflavin Reclassified as Vitamin B2
Vitamin H Biotin Reclassified as Vitamin B7
Vitamin J Catechol, Flavin Protein metabolite
Vitamin L1 Anthranilic acid Protein metabolite
Vitamin L2 Adenylthiomethylpentose RNA metabolite
Vitamin M Folic acid Reclassified as Vitamin B9
Vitamin O Carnitine Protein metabolite
Vitamin P Flavonoids No longer classified as a vitamin
Vitamin PP Niacin Reclassified as Vitamin B3
Vitamin U S-Methylmethionine Protein metabolite
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